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Mycotoxins in poultry – External signs can give a hint

1 Aug at 7:497 min read

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Part 4: Paleness

By Dr. Inge Heinzl, Editor and Marisabel Caballero, Global Technical Manager Poultry

We already showed bad feathering, mouth and beak lesions, bone issues, and foot pad lesions as signs of mycotoxin contamination in the feed, but there is another indicator: paleness. Paleness can signify a low count of red blood cells resulting from blood loss or inadequate production of these cells. Other possibilities are higher bilirubin levels in the blood due to an impaired liver, leading to jaundice or missing pigmentation.

Hen With Pale Comb And Wattles Large — Hen with pale comb and wattles (adapted from Bozzo et al., 2023)

The mycotoxins mainly causing anemia are Aflatoxins, Ochratoxin, DON, and T-2 toxin

Anemia can be diagnosed using parameters such as red blood cell count, hemoglobin levels, and hematocrit/packed cell volume (PCV). Numerous studies have examined the impact of mycotoxins on hematological parameters. They reveal their propensity to affect red blood cell production by impairing the function of the spleen and inducing hematological alterations. On the other hand, anemia can be caused by blood loss. Due to affecting coagulation factors, mycotoxins can lead to internal hemorrhages. The gut wall damage, probably due to secondary infections such as coccidiosis and necrotic enteritis, can entail bloody diarrhea in various animal species.

Impact on the production of blood cells

Low values of blood parameters such as red blood cells, hemoglobin, and hematocrit can result from inadequate production due to impacted production organs. The World Health Organization (WHO, 1990) and European Commission (European Commission, 2001) have identified hematopoietic tissues as targets for necrosis caused by T-2 toxin. Chu (2003) even stated that “the major lesion of T-2 toxin is its devastating effect on the hematopoietic system in many mammals, including humans”. Pande et al. (2006) suggested that reduced hemoglobin values result from decreased protein synthesis due to mycotoxin contamination, a notion supported by Pronk et al. (2002), who described trichothecenes as potent inhibitors of protein, DNA, and RNA synthesis, particularly affecting tissues with high cell division rates. Additionally, the European Commission (2001) highlighted the sensitivity of red blood cell progenitor cells (in this trial, the cells of mice, rats, and humans) to the toxic effects of T-2 and HT-toxins. DAS also seems to attack the hematopoietic system, as shown in humans (WHO, 1990). A further cause for anemia might be low feed intake or nutrient absorption, which inhibits adequate iron absorption and leads to iron deficiency. In their case report, Bozzo et al. (2023) assumed that renal failure and a resulting impaired excretion capacity caused by OTA might even increase the half-life of the toxins. This would enhance their effects on their target organs, such as the liver and bone marrow, and lead to anemia.

Several studies utilizing different animal species and mycotoxin dosages have been conducted to assess the effects of Aflatoxins, Ochratoxin, and T-2 Toxin on hematological parameters. The following table provides a summary of some of these studies.

Animal species	Dosage	Impact	Reference
T-2 Toxin and other Trichothecenes
Broilers	T-2 – 0, 1, 2, and 4 mg T-2 toxin/kg n=30 per group	Significant reduction in hemoglobin at 1, 2, and 4 ppm; PCV significantly reduced at 4 ppm	Pande et al., 2006
Broilers	T-2 – 0 and 4 mg/kg diet n=60 per group	Decrease in hemoglobin, mean corpuscular volume, and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration	Kubena et al., 1989a
Broilers	4, 16, 50, 100, 300 ppm for seven days n=5-20 chickens per group	Anemia; significant reduction of hematocrit (50 and 100 ppm); survivors had atrophied lymphoid organs and were anemic	Hoerr et al., 1982
Yangzhou goslings	0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 2.0 mg/kg; n=6 per group	Red blood cell count decreased in the 2.0 mg/kg group along with an increase in mean corpuscular hemoglobin (p<0.05) and reduced mean platelet volume (P<0.05)	Gu et al., 2023
Broilers	2 ppm; 32 birds per group	Anemia, as indicated by significantly (P<0.05) lower total erythrocyte count (TEC) values, lower hemoglobin levels, and packed cell volume; additional thrombocytopenia could be the cause of bleeding	Yohannes et al., 2013
DON
Broilers	5 and 15 mg/kg of feed for 42 days	Decrease in erythrocytes, mean corpuscular volume (MCV), and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) at 15 mg/kg; decrease in hematocrit and hemoglobin at both levels of DON.	Riahi, 2021
Piglets	0.6 mg/kg and 2.0 mg/kg	Significant decrease in mean corpuscular volume	Modrá et al., 2013
Broilers	16 mg/kg diet n=60 per group	Significant decrease in mean corpuscular volume	Kubena et al., 1989c
Ochratoxin
Broilers	2 mg/kg diet singly or combined with DAS 6 mg/kg	Reduced mean corpuscular hemoglobin values	Kubena et al., 1994
Broilers	2 mg/kg diet	Significant decrease in hemoglobin, hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration	Kubena et al., 1989b
Aflatoxins
Broilers	2.5 µg/g	Decrease in red blood cell count	Huff et al., 1988
Broilers	≥1.25 µg/g	Significant decrease in hemoglobin and erythrocyte count	Tung et al., 1975
AFB1 + OTA
Laying hens	Natural feed contamination OTA – 31 ± 3.08 µg/kg and AFB1 – 5.6 ± 0.33 µg/kg dry weight	Anemia signs (pale appearance of combs and wattles), evidenced by the discoloration of the content of the femoral medullary cavity.	Bozzo et al., 2023

Table 1: The effects of different mycotoxins on hematological parameters – hematopoiesis

In their meta-analysis, Andretta et al. (2012) reported that the presence of mycotoxins in broiler diets decreased the hematocrit and the hemoglobin concentration by 5% and 15%, and aflatoxin alone decreased the parameters by 6% and 20%.

It should be evident that a simultaneous occurrence of several mycotoxins even aggravates the situation. In an experiment involving Sprague Dawley rats, administering T-2, DON, NIV, ZEA, NEO, and OTB decreased hematocrit and red blood cell counts across all mycotoxins. However, for DON, NIV, ZEN, and OTB, red blood cell values showed partial recovery after 24 hours (Chattopadhyay, 2013). Perhaps the organism learns to cope with the mycotoxins.

The examples show that Trichothecenes, such as T-2 toxin, DON, and others, as well as Ochratoxins and Aflatoxins, impact blood parameters such as hematocrit, hemoglobin, red blood cell count, and mean corpuscular volume. All these changes might lead to paleness of the skin and birds’ feet and combs.

Blood loss caused by bleeding or destruction of erythrocytes

The second possibility for anemia is blood loss due to injuries or lesions. In addition to directly causing hemorrhages, mycotoxins can promote secondary infections such as coccidiosis, which damages the gut and may produce bloody feces.

Parent-Massin (2004) e.g. reports on rapidly progressing coagulation problems after the ingestion of trichothecenes leading to septicemia and massive hemorrhages. Table 2 shows more examples of mycotoxins causing paleness due to blood loss.

Animal species	Dosage	Impact	Reference
T-2 Toxin and other Trichothecenes

Cats	T-2 toxin – 0.06-0.1 mg/kg body weight/day	Bloody feces, hemorrhages	Lutsky et al., 1978
Cats	T-2 toxin – 0.08 mg/kg BW every 48 h until death	Bloody feces	Lutzky and Mor, 1981
Pigeon	DAS in oat, sifting	Emesis and bloody stools	Szathmary (1983)
Calves	0.08, 0.16, 0.32, or 0.6 mg/kg BW per day for 30 days; 1 calf per treatment	Bloody feces at doses ≥0.32 mg/kg BW per day	Pier et al., 1976
Ochratoxin
Rats	Single dosages of 0, 17, or 22 mg/kg BW in 0.1 Mol/L NaHCO₃, gavage	Multifocal hemorrhages in many organs	Albassam et al., 1987

DON
Broilers	0, 35, 70, 140, 280, 560, and 1120 mg/kg body weight	Ecchymotic hemorrhages throughout the intestinal tract, liver, and musculature; relationship to hemorrhagic anemia syndrome seems warranted	Huff et al., 1981
Sterigmatocystin (ST)
10-12-day old chicks (93-101 g)	10 and 14 mg/kg BW intraperitoneal	Hemorrhages and foci of necrosis in the liver	Sreemannarayana et al., 1987
Aflatoxins
Broiler chickens	100 µg/kg feed	Hemorrhages in the liver	Abdel-Sattar, 2019
Turkeys	500 and 1000 ppb in the diet	Bloody diarrhea, spleens with hemorrhages, petechial hemorrhages in the small intestine	Giambrone et al., 1984
Broilers	0, 0.625, 1.25, 2.5, 5.0, and 10.0 mg/kg of diet combined with Infectious Bursal Disease	Slight hemorrhages in the skeletal muscles; decreased hematocrit and hemoglobin due to hemolytic anemia.	Chang and Hamilton, 1981
Broilers	0, 1, and 2 mg AFB1/kg of diet	Downregulation of the genes involved in blood coagulation (coagulation factor IX and X) and upregulation of anticoagulant protein C precursor, an inactivator of coagulation factors Va and VIIIa, and antithrombin-III precursor with 2 mg/kg	Yarru, 2009
Pigs	1-4 mg/kg, 4 weeks 0.4-0.8 mg/kg, 10 weeks	Hemorrhages	Henry et al., 2001

Table 2: The effects of different mycotoxins on hematological parameters – blood loss

Poor pigmentation

The fourth reason for paleness can be inadequate pigmentation. According to Hy Line (2021), the so-called pale bird syndrome is characterized by poor skin and egg yolk pigmentation and is caused by reduced absorption of fat and carotenoid pigments in compromised birds. This is also the case when the diets contain pigment supplements. Tyczkowski and Hamilton (1986) observed in their experiment with chickens exposed to doses of 1-8 µg of Aflatoxins/g of diet for three weeks that aflatoxins can cause poor pigmentation in chickens, probably by impairing carotenoids absorption but also transport and deposition. Osborne et al. (1982) asserted that carotenoids were significantly (P<0.05) depressed by 2 ppm ochratoxin as well as by 2.5 ppm aflatoxin in the diet.

Another possibility is oxidative stress due to the mycotoxin challenge. As pigments also serve as antioxidants, they may be expended for this purpose and are no longer available for pigmentation.

Paleness in poultry – a reason to think about mycotoxins

Paleness can have different causes, some of which are influenced by mycotoxins. If your chickens or hens are pale, checking the feed concerning mycotoxins is always recommended. A feed analysis can give information about possible contamination (see our tool MasterRisk).

In the case of contamination, effective products binding the mycotoxins and mitigating the adverse effects of these harmful substances can help protect your birds. As paleness is usually not the only effect of mycotoxins but also a decrease in growth, toxin binders can help maintain the performance of your animals.

References:

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